Entrepreneurial attitudes as driving forces in times of European uncertainty: The role of entrepreneurial education

Abstract

Objective: The article aims to identify the main determinants affecting the creation of entrepreneurial attitudes among university students in non-economic fields during times of high uncertainty (such as the Covid-19 pandemic).

Research Design & Methods: We based the research model on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and surveyed university students in non-economic fields in Poland (N=355). Statistical analysis provided an opportunity to confirm the research hypotheses.

Findings: Positively confirmed hypotheses: entrepreneurial attitudes are shaped by a number of internal and external factors (H1); entrepreneurial knowledge is related to the formation of entrepreneurial attitudes (H2); formal education can be an important source of entrepreneurial knowledge among university students in non-economic fields (H3); well-established entrepreneurial attitudes influence positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship in times of uncertainty related to Covid-19 (H4). This led to an indirect positive answer to the RQ: Entrepreneurial education among university students in non-economic fields is linked to the intention to establish their businesses.

Implications & Recommendations: The survey’s conclusions suggest the necessity to intensify efforts at the higher education level to supplement programs with entrepreneurial education for university students in non-economic fields, which scholars seldom analyse in this context, particularly in the Central and Eastern European region.

Contribution & Value Added: The study fills the gap in research on the relationship between entrepreneurial education and entrepreneurial attitudes, which are key factors influencing the creation of new business ventures. Existing literature highlights the lack of analysis in Central and Eastern Europe with particular emphasis on Poland.

Keywords

entrepreneurial intention, entrepreneurial attitudes, entrepreneurial education, economic knowledge, non-economic students, Poland

Author Biography

Katarzyna Bałandynowicz-Panfil

PhD in Economics. Works as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Sustainable Market Processes at the Faculty of Economics, University of Gdańsk in Poland. Her research interests focus on the silver economy, media and economy relations, labour market and regional development.

Małgorzata Łosiewicz

A habilitated Doctor in Media Studies, PhD in Economics. Professor and Director of the Institute of Media, Journalism and Social Communication at the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Gdańsk in Poland. Her research interests focus on the media image of people and institutions, communicating market entities in a crisis.

Beata Czechowska-Derkacz

PhD in Humanities. Works as an Assistant Professor of the Institute of Media, Journalism and Social Communication at the Department of Social Sciences, University of Gdańsk in Poland. Her research interest are on the image of universities, public relations, image strategies.

References

1. Abun, D. (2021). Measuring Entrepreneurial Attitude and Entrepreneurial Intention of Abm Grade Xii Senior High School Students of Divine Word Colleges in Region I Philippines. Ssrn Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3807834.
2. Acuña Duran, E., Pradenas-Wilson, D., Oyanedel, J. C., Jalon-Gardella, R. (2021). Entrepreneurial Intention and Perceived Social Support From Academics-Scientists at Chilean Universities. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.682632
3. Adekiya, A. A. & Ibrahim, F. (n.d.). Entrepreneurship intention among students. the antecedent role of culture and entrepreneurship training and development. International Journal of Management Education 116–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2016.03.001
4. Adelaja,, A. A. Umar, M. A. Soomiyol, M. T. Ahmad, R., Najeemdeen I. S. & Abidemi, B. T. (2018). Effectuation approach in accessing significance of entrepreneurial education on students’ entrepreneurial inten-tion. Indian-Pacific Journal of Accounting and Finance 35–43. https://doi.org/10.52962/ipjaf.2018.2.4.50
5. Ahmed, T., Chandran, V. G. R., Klobas, J. E., Liñán F. & Kokkalis P. (n.d.). Entrepreneurship education programmes: how learning inspiration and resources affect intentions for new venture creation in a developing econo-my. The International Journal of Management Education. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2019.100327
6. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes : A Journal of Fundamental Research and Theory in Applied Psychology Vol. 50, 179-211. Retrieved May 10 2023 from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6256/ca4853f44ab9acb98f91f0d7848c54185ca7.pdf.
7. Ajzen, I. (2011). The theory of planned behaviour: reactions and reflections. Psychology and Health, 1113–1127. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2011.613995
8. Ajzen, I. (2012). Values, Attitudes and Behahior. In; Salzborn, S., Davidov, E., Reinecke, J. Methods, Theories, and Empirical Applications in the Social Sciences https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-531-18898-0_5.
9. Alharbi, J., Almahdi, H. & Mosbah, A. (2018). The impact of entrepreneurship education programs (eeps) on the entrepreneurial attitudes among higher education students. SSRN. Retrieved May 10 2023 from https://ssrn.com/abstract=3287967.
10. Al-Jubari, I. (2019). College Students’ Entrepreneurial Intention: Testing an Integrated Model of Sdt and Tpb. Sage Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019853467.
11. Androniceanu, A.M., Georgescu, I., Kinnunen, J., (2022). A New Entrepreneurial Motivations Profile for Starting New Business by Using a Panel Data Analysis. Management Research and Practice. 5–5(12).
12. Anwar, I., Thoudam, P., and Saleem, I. (2022). Role of entrepreneurial education in shaping entrepreneurial intention among university students: Testing the hypotheses using mediation and moderation ap-proach. Journal of Education for Business. 97 (1): 8-20.
13. Bernat, T., Gąsior-Żarska, A. (2018). Determinanty intencji przedsiębiorczych: czy płeć ma znaczenie? Studia i Prace WNEiZ US. 29-42.
14. Boguszewicz-Kreft, M., Kuczamer-Kłopotowska, S., Kozłowski,A., Ayci, A., Abuhashesh, M. (2020). The Theory of Planned Behaviour in Medical Tourism: International Comparison in the Young Consumer Seg-ment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (5).
15. Botezat, E.A., Constăngioară, A., Dodescu, A.O., Pop-Cohuţ, I.C. (2022). How Stable Are Students’ Entrepreneurial Intentions in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context? Sustainability. 14 (9): 5690.
16. Business Insider. (2023). Report of the Polish Institute of Economics. https://businessinsider.com.pl/.
17. Central Statistical Office. 2021. http://stat.gov.pl/.
18. Chaker, H., Houyem, J. (2021). Combining teaching “about” and “through” entrepreneurship: A practice to devel-op students’ entrepreneurial competencies. Industry and Higher Education 35.4.
19. Chaturvedi, R., Karri, A. (2022). Entrepreneurship in the Times of Pandemic: Barriers and Strategies. FIIB Business Review. 11 (1): 52-66.
20. Cieślik, J. (2010). Przedsiębiorczość dla ambitnych: jak uruchomić własny biznes. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Akade-mickie i Profesjonalne.
21. Coviello, N.E., Jones, M.V. (2004). Methodological issues in international entrepreneurship research. Journal of business venturing 19.4.
22. Crisp, R., Powell, R. (2017). Young people and UK labour market policy: A critique of ‘employability’ as a tool for understanding youth unemployment. Urban Studies. 54 (8): 1784-1807.
23. Datta, A., Bazan, C., Arnold, K.A. (2022). Effect of gender role identity on the entrepreneurial intention of univer-sity students. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship. 34 (5): 618-644.
24. Dehkordi, A. M., Sasani, A., Fathi, M.R., Khanmohammadi, E. (2012). Investigating the Effect of Emotional Intelli-gence and Personality Traits on Entrepreneurial Intention Using the Fuzzy DEMATEL Method. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3 (19).
25. Diez-Echavarria L., Valencia-Arias A., Bermudez-Hernandez J. (2020). Tool for measuring the influence of the field of knowledge on entrepreneurial intention among university students. Periodica Polytechnica Social and Management Sciences. 28 (1): 38-47.
26. Dinis, A., Do Paço, A., Ferreira, J., Raposo, M., Gouveia Rodrigues, R. (2013). Psychological characteristics and entrepreneurial intentions among secondary students. Education + Training. 55 (8-9): 763-780.
27. Egerová, D., Ubrežiová, I., Nowiński, W., Czéglédi, C. (2016). Entrepreneurship education: opportunities and chal-lenges for universities in Visegrad countries.
28. EIM Business & Policy Research, and European Commission. (2012). Effects and impact of entrepreneurship pro-grammes in higher education. Brussels: EU. http://bookshop.europa.eu/uri?target=EUB:NOTICE:NB0113679:EN:HTML.
29. European Commission. (2012). Entrepreneurship education at school in Europe: national strategies, curricula and learning outcomes. Brussels: Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency.
30. European Commission. (2022). Report of the European Commission, Employment and Social Developments in Europe 2022: https://ec.europa.eu/.
31. Eurostat. (2023). Eurostat comparative studies. https://youth.europa.eu/news/effects-of-covid-19-youth-employment_pl
32. Fayolle, A., Gailly, B., Lassas-Clerc, N. n.d. Assessing the Impact of Entrepreneurship Education Programmes: A New Methodology. Journal of European Industrial Training. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00133044.
33. Fayolle, A. (2002). Les determinants de l'acte entrepreneurial chez les etudiants et les jeunes diplomes de l'en-seignement superieur francais. Gestion 2000. 61-78.
34. Fernández-Pérez, V., Montes-Merino, A., Rodríguez-Ariza, L., Galicia, P.E.A. (2019). Emotional competencies and cognitive antecedents in shaping student’s entrepreneurial intention: the moderating role of entrepreneur-ship education. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal. 15 (1): 281-305.
35. Fretschner, M., Weber, S. (2013). Measuring and Understanding the Effects of Entrepreneurial Awareness Educa-tion. Journal of Small Business Management. 51 (3): 410-428.
36. Galinda-Martín, M.Á., Castaño-Martínez, M.S., Méndez-Picazo, M.T. (2021). Effects of the pandemic crisis on entrepreneurship and sustainable development. Journal of Business Research. 137: 345-353.
37. Gaweł, A., Pietrzykowski, M. (2015). Edukacja akademicka w postrzeganiu przedsiębiorczości i kształtowaniu intencji przedsiębiorczych. Problemy Zarządzania. 13: 41-55.
38. Gianiodis, P. T., Meek, W. R. (2020). Entrepreneurial education for the entrepreneurial university: a stakeholder perspective. The Journal of Technology Transfer. 45.
39. GEM, Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Polska. (2021). Polska Agencja Rozwoju Przedsiębiorczości.
40. Golonka, M. (2019). Edukacja przedsiębiorczości: perspektywa realistyczna = Entrepreneurship education : a realistic perspective. Przedsiębiorczość - Edukacja. 40-58.
41. Grondys, K., Ślusarczyk, O., Hussain,H.I., Androniceanu, A., Cioca, L.I., Popa-Andrei, D. (2021). Risk Assessment of the SME Sector Operations during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (8).
42. Gubik S., Bartha, A.Z. (2018). The role of university in influencing the entrepreneurial intention of university students. International Entrepreneurship Review. 4 (3).
43. Haddoud, M. Y., Onjewu, A-K. E., Nowinski, W., Alammari, K. (2022). Assessing the role of entrepreneurship edu-cation in regulating emotions and fostering implementation intention: evidence from Nigerian universi-ties. Studies in Higher Education. 47 (2): 450-468.
44. Hasan, N., Bao, Y. (2020). Impact of “e-Learning crack-up” perception on psychological distress among college students during COVID-19 pandemic: A mediating role of “fear of academic year loss. Children and youth ser-vices review 118.
45. Hattab, H. W. (2014). Impact of Entrepreneurship Education on Entrepreneurial Intentions of University Students in Egypt. The Journal of Entrepreneurship. 23 (1): 1-18.
46. Herdjiono I., Puspa, Y.H., Maulany, G., Aldy, B.E. (2017). The Factors Affecting Entrepreneurship Inten-tion. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Knowledge. 5 (2): 5-15.
47. Hernández-Sánchez, B. R., Cardella, G.M., Sánchez-García, J.C. (2020). Psychological Factors that Lessen the Im-pact of COVID-19 on the Self-Employment Intention of Business Administration and Economics' Students from Latin America. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (15).
48. Hrehová, D., Rác, I. (2015). Adaptation to a University Environment – Theoretical Underpinnings and Some Con-textual Information from Students’ Survey. Pedagogica 6.
49. Hutasuhut, S. (2018). The Roles of Entrepreneurship Knowledge, Self-Efficacy, Family, Education, and Gender on Entrepreneurial Intention. Dinamika Pendidikan. 13 (1): 90-105.
50. Jiatong, W., Murad, M., Bajun, F., Tufail, M.S., Mirza, F., Rafiq, M. (2021). Impact of Entrepreneurial Education, Mindset, and Creativity on Entrepreneurial Intention: Mediating Role of Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 724440.
51. Kautonen, T., Tornikoski, I.T., Kibler, E. (2011). Entrepreneurial intentions in the third age: the impact of per-ceived age norms. Small Business Economics : An Entrepreneurship Journal. 37 (2): 219-234.
52. Hadj, K., Dhiaf, M.M. (2016). The impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial intention: the UAE context. Polish Journal of Management Studies Vol. 14, Is. 1. http://doi.org/10.17512/pjms.2016.14.1.11.
53. Kolvereid, L., Moen, O. (1997). Entrepreneurship among business graduates: Does a major in entrepreneurship make a difference? Journal of European Industrial Training. 21 (4-5): 154.
54. Krichen, K., Chaabouni, H. (2022). Entrepreneurial intention of academic students in the time of COVID-19 pan-demic. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development. 29 (1): 106-126.
55. Krueger, N.F., Jr, Reilly, M.D., Carsrud, A.L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing. 15 (5-6): 411-432.
56. Krueger, N. (2009). Entrepreneurial Intentions are Dead: Long Live Entrepreneurial Intentions. In: Carsrud, A., Brännback, M. (eds) Understanding the Entrepreneurial Mind. International Studies in Entrepreneurship. 24. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0443-0_4.
57. Kurczewska, A., Doryń, W., Wawrzyniak, D. (2020). An Everlasting Battle between Theoretical Knowledge and Practical Skills? The Joint Impact of Education and Professional Experience on Entrepreneurial Success. En-trepreneurial Business and Economics Review. 8 (2): 219-237. https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2020.080212.
58. Kuttim, M., Kallaste, K., Venesaar, U., Kiis, A. (2014). Entrepreneurship Education at University Level and Students’ Entrepreneurial Intentions. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences Vol. 110. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.910.
59. Lavelle, B. A. (2019). Entrepreneurship Education's Impact on Entrepreneurial Intention Using the Theory of Planned Behavior: Evidence From Chinese Vocational College Students. Entrepreneurship Education and Ped-agogy. 4 (1): 30-51. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515127419860307.
60. Lechuga, Sancho, M.P., Martín-Navarro, A., Ramos-Rodríguez, A.R. (2020). Will they end up doing what they like? the moderating role of the attitude towards entrepreneurship in the formation of entrepreneurial inten-tions. Studies in Higher Education. 45 (2): 416-433.
61. Li, C., Murad, M., Ashraf, S.F., Syed, N., Riaz, M. (2020). Entrepreneurial nascent behaviour: The role of causation process in opportunity discovery and creation. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review. 8 (4). doi: 10.15678/EBER.2020.080410.
62. Liñán, F., Chen, Y., W. (2006). Testing the entrepreneurial intention model on a two-country sample. Bellaterra, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Departament d'Economia de l'Empresa. http://hdl.handle.net/2072/2213.
63. Liñán, F., Rodríguez-Cohard, J.C., Rueda-Cantuche, J.M. (2011). Factors affecting entrepreneurial intention levels: A role for education. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal. 7: 195-218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-010-0154-z.
64. Liñán, F. (2004). Intention-Based Models of Entrepreneurship Education. Piccola Impresa/Small Business. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235937886_Intention-Based_Models_of_Entrepreneurship_Education
65. Lorti, J., Castogiovanni, G. (2015). The theory of planned behavior in entrepreneurship research: what we know and future directions. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal. 11: 935-957. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-015-0358-3.
66. Lungu, A. E., Bogslov, I.A. (2020). Enterpreneurship in Pandemic: How to succeed?. Revista Economica, 72 (2): 36-44. http://economice.ulbsibiu.ro/revista.economica/archive/72204lungu&bogoslov.pdf.
67. Łuczka, T., Rembiasz, M. (2016). Badanie postaw przedsiębiorczych studentów - wybrane aspekty teoretyczne i empiryczne. Horyzonty Wychowania, 15 (34): 27-47. DOI: 10.17399/HW.2016.153402.
68. Maes, J., Leroy, H., Sels, L. (2014). Gender differences in entrepreneurial intentions: A TPB multi-group analysis at factor and indicator level. European Management Journal. 32 (5): 784-794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2014.01.001.
69. Maina, R. W. (2011). Determinants of Entrepreneurial Intentions among Kenyan College Graduates. KCA Journal of Business Management. 3 (2). DOI: 10.4314/kjbm.v3i2.65968.
70. Malebana, M. J. (2014). The Effect of Knowledge of Entrepreneurial Support on Entrepreneurial Intention. Medi-terranean Journal of Social Sciences. 5 (20): 1020-1028. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n20p1020.
71. Mamman, A., Kayode, O.I., Abdulrahaman Abdulrazaq, M., Nuhu, S.J., Kazeem, L.O. (2018). The Influence of En-trepreneurship Education on the Entrepreneurial Intentions of University Students in Katsina State, Nigeria. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae: Economics and Business. 6 (1): 21042. https://doi.org/10.1515/auseb-2018-0002.
72. Maresch, D., Harms, R., Kailer, N., Wimmer-Wurm, B. (2016). The impact of entrepreneurship education on the entrepreneurial intention of students in science and engineering versus business studies university pro-grams. Technological Forecasting and Social Change. 104: 172-179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2015.11.006.
73. Miranda, F.J., Chamorro-Mera, A., Rubio, S. (2017). Academic entrepreneurship in Spanish universities: An analy-sis of the determinants of entrepreneurial intention. European Research on Management and Business Eco-nomics Vol. 23 Is. 2. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.iedeen.2017.01.001.
74. Mustafa, M., Alshar'e, S., Abu Shariah, M., Al-Alawi, M., Mohammad, A.U. (2021). Managing and analyzing factors influencing Saudi college students' entrepreneurial intention during the Covid-19 pandemic. Turkish Journal of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation. 32 (3).
75. Nabi, G., Walmsley, A., Liñán, F., Akhtar, I., Neame, C. (2018). Does entrepreneurship education in the first year of higher education develop entrepreneurial intentions? The role of learning and inspiration. Studies in Higher Education. 43. DOI: 10.1080/03075079.2016.1177716.
76. Nabi, G., Liñán, F., Fayolle, A., Krueger, N., Walmsley, A. (2017). The Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda. Academy of Management Learning & Educa-tion, 16 (2): 277-299. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2015.0026.
77. Nabi, G., Liñán, F. (2011). Graduate entrepreneurship in the developing world: Intentions, ducation and devel-opment. Education & Training. 53 (5): 325-334. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911111147668.
78. Neneh, B.N. (2020). Entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intention: the role of social support and entre-preneurial self-efficacy. Studies in Higher Education. 47 (3): 587-603. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2020.1770716.
79. Nowiński, W., Haddoud, M.Y., Lančarič, D., Egerová, D., Czeglédi, C. (2019). The impact of entrepreneurship edu-cation, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and gender on entrepreneurial intentions of university students in the Visegrad countries. Studies in Higher Education. 44 (2): 361-379. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2017.1365359.
80. OECD. (2021). Self-employment rate. https://data.oecd.org/emp/self-employment-rate.htm
81. OECD, OCDE, & European Commission. (2020). Policy brief on recent developments in youth entrepreneurship. OECD Publishing; Éditions OCDE.
82. Olszewska, M. (2010). Psychologiczne determinanty podejmowania decyzji o własnej przedsiębiorczości (Psycho-logical determinants of own entrepreneurship decisions), in: Knowledge and entrepreneurship – a publica-tion summarizing the implementation of the project. Project implemented by the Association of Local Govern-ment Initiatives. 34. http://www.pawelrasmus.pl/images/upload/art._4.pdf.
83. Oosterbeek, H., van Praag, M., Ijsselstein, A. (2010). The Impact of Entrepreneurship Education on Entrepreneur-ship Skills and Motivation”. European Economic Review. 54 (3): 442-454.
84. Passoni, D., Glavam, R.B. (2018). Entrepreneurial intention and the effects of entrepreneurial education: Differ-ences among management, engineering, and accounting students. International Journal of Innovation Sci-ence. 10 (1). DOI: 10.1108/IJIS-05-2017-0042.
85. Piróg, D. (2014). Uwarunkowania przedsiębiorczości absolwentów szkół wyższych: założenia teoretyczne i stan rzeczywisty (Determinants of the entrepreneurship of university graduates: theoretical assumptions and ac-tual state). Przedsiębiorczość - Edukacja (Entrepreneurship – Education). 10. https://doi.org/10.24917/20833296.10.23.
86. Płoziak, M., Rachwał, T. (2014). Entrepreneurship Courses in Spatial Management Studies in Polish Universities. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 110: 710-718. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.915.
87. Polish Agency for Enterprise Development. (2021). Report on the state of the small and medium-sized enterprise sector in Poland. https://en.parp.gov.pl/.
88. Polish Institute of Economics. (2023). Report of the Polish Institute of Economics. https://www.bankier.pl/.
89. PWN. (2023). Encyclopaedia. https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/.
90. Rideout, E., Gray, D. (2013). Does Entrepreneurship Education Really Work? A Review and Methodo-logical Critique of the Empirical Literature on the Effects of University-Based Entrepreneurship Education. Journal of Small Business Management. 51 (3): 329-351. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12021.
91. Robinson, P. B., Stimpson, B.V., Huefner, J.C., Hunt, H.K. (1991). An Attitude Approach to the Prediction of Entre-preneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice. 15. https://doi.org/10.1177/104225879101500405.
92. Ruswanti, E. (2016). Entrepreneurship Knowledge, Training Home Industry, And Attitude Towards Entrepreneuri-al Intention Enterpreunership. I J A B E R. 14. (5): 2803-2816. Access: https://www.esaunggul.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/UEU-Journal-8895-1468844750-IJABER-16-5.pdf.
93. Sherkat, A., Chenari. A. (2022). Assessing the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education in the universities of Tehran province based on an entrepreneurial intention model. Studies in Higher Education. 47 (1). https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2020.1732906.
94. Shi, Y., Yuan, T., Bell, R., Wang, J. (2020). Investigating the Relationship Between Creativity and Entrepreneurial Intention: The Moderating Role of Creativity in the Theory of Planned Behavior. Frontiers in Psychology. 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01209.
95. Shneor, R., Smith, J.B., Smith, C.G., Fabian, J., Goedecke, J.F. (2021). The Differential Impact of Entrepreneurship Education on the Entrepreneurial Intentions of Segments of Students. Entrepreneurship Education and Peda-gogy. 4. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515127420936240.
96. Sirelkhatim, F., Gangi Y. (2015). Entrepreneurship education: A systematic literature review of curricula contents and teaching methods. Cogent Business & Management 2 (1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2015.1052034.
97. Smith, K., Beasley M. Graduate entrepreneurs: intentions, barriers and solutions”. Education + Training 53 (8/9): 722-740. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911111185044.
98. Souitaris, V., Zerbinati, S., Al-Laham, A. (2007). Do Entrepreneurship Programmes Raise Entrepreneurial Intention of Science and Engineering Students? The Effect of Learning, Inspiration and Resources. Journal of Business Venturing. 22 (4): 566-591. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2006.05.002.
99. Statistics Poland. (2021). Statistical information: Registered unemployment I–III quarter 2021. Labour Market Department, Warsaw 2021: 11.
100. Stephan, U., Zbierowski, P., Pérez-Luño, A., Klausen, A. (2021). Entrepreneurship during the Covid-19 Pandemic: A global study of entrepreneurs' challenges, resilience, and well-being. KBS Covid-19 Research Impact Pa-pers, No. 4.
101. Storr, V.H., Haeffele, S., Lofthouse, J.K., Hobson, A. (2022). Entrepreneurship during a pandemic. Eur J Law Econ 54 (1): 83-105. doi: 10.1007/s10657-021-09712-7.
102. Tkachev, A., Kolvereid, L. (1999). Self-employment intentions among Russian students. Entrepreneurship & Re-gional Development. 11 (3): 269-280. https://doi.org/10.1080/089856299283209.
103. Tubadji, A., Dietrich, H., Angelis, V., Haas, A., Schels, B. (2021). Fear-of-failure and cultural persistence in youth entrepreneurship Comparative analysis: Greece versus Germany. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneur-ship. 33: 513-538.
104. Von Graevenitz, G., Harhoff, D., Weber, R. (2010). The Effects of Entrepreneurship Education. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 76 (1): 90-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2010.02.015.
105. Wach, K., Wojciechowski, L. (2016). Entrepreneurial Intentions of Students in Poland in the View of Ajzen’s Theo-ry of Planned Behaviour. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review. 4 (1): 83-94. https://doi.org/10.15678/eber.2016.040106.
106. Wadhwani, D. R., Kirsch, D., Welter, F., Gartner, W.B., Jones, G.G. (2020). Context, time, and change: Historical approaches to entrepreneurship research. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal. 14 (1): 3-19. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.1346.
107. Wannamakok, W., Chang, Y-Y., Täks, M. (2020). The Relationship between Institutional Environments and Entre-preneurial Intention in Estonia: Mediating Roles of Desirability and Feasibility. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review. 8: 111-126. https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2020.080206
108. Wasilczuk, J. E., Stankiewicz, K. (2022). Isi s not OK but it works – unproductive entrepreneurship, the case of Poland. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istrazivanja 35:1. http://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2021.1985571.
109. WUP. (2022). Informacja miesięczna o rynku pracy. Styczeń 2022. https://www.porp.pl/informacje-o-rynku-pracy.
110. WUP. (2023). Barometr zawodów. Raport podsumowujący badanie w województwie pomorskim. https://barometrzawodow.pl/.
111. Zapkau, F.B., Schwens, C., Steinmetz, H., Kabst, R. (2015). Disentangling the effect of prior entrepreneurial expo-sure on entrepreneurial intention. Journal of Business Research. 68 (3): 639-653.. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2014.08.007.
112. Zarafshani, K., Rajabi, S. (2011). Effects of Personality Traits on Entrepreneurial Intentions: An Empirical Study in Iran. International Journal of Management, 28 (3): 630-642.
113. Zhang, J., Huang, J_H. (2021). Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy Mediates the Impact of the Post-pandemic Entrepre-neurship Environment on College Students' Entrepreneurial Intention. Frontiers in psychology. 12. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.643184.